Pre-Production Theory

Pre-Production Theory

The pre-production process needed to shoot a short film consists of many different documents. These documents consist of a film script, a story-board, a script breakdown, a budget, risk assessment, clearances and an outline of any legal considerations. This blog's purpose is to explain each of these documents in detail.

A film script

The film script is the beginning of the film making process. It is essentially the story. A script will consist of character descriptions, dialogue and descriptions of setting. It will be written by the screenwriter, and will often be very different to the final script used in the film due to the many steps taken throughout the production of the film such as script editing and script breakdown. Although the script is the starting point of the film, it also exists as the backbone throughout despite however many changes may be made.

Film scripts follow a strict layout; an example of this can be found here.
Below is a screenshot of a section from the first draft script of Get Him To The Greek wrote by Nicholas Stoller:

http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/GetHimToTheGreek.pdf

Below is a screenshot of the first page of a script I have wrote:

The script I have wrote follows the same format as the professional one. When opening the scene, I stated whether it was inside (INT.) or outside (EXT.), where it was (in this case, Peter's bedroom) and whether it was day or night. A brief character description is given and I stated what action will be happening on screen at this point. I followed the general rule of limiting the description of action or mise én scene in a scene to no more than five lines per paragraph as this keeps the pace of the script up and keeps only the necessary and significant information needed. Scripts can seem quite brief and not as detailed as you would think they would need to be to make a film from, however this is because all of the information featured in the script can then be elaborated in other documents, such as the script breakdown and character sheets.

A story-board

Alfred Hitchcock once said, "I think one of the biggest problems we have in our business is the inability of people to visualise", and storyboarding is one effective way to solve this problem. Storyboarding is literally drawing shots onto paper to then be used as a sort of template for your film. A well made story-board can work alongside the script to further aid the planning of the narrative scene by scene. It is essential in film making for everyone to keep on track and to be fully aware of what needs to happen, how it can be done and when it will be done. Visualising scenes in this way has many benefits to aid towards the success and streamlining of the pre-production process. A story-board is used to show exactly how the director wants the scene much before any actors, set or prop are involved. Also, storyboarding can be used to eliminate unwanted scenes before filming begins and time and money is wasted. Successful storyboarding can ensure the shooting of a film runs as smoothly as possible and can help prevent time being spent filming scenes in a way the director did not want or intend. 

The story-board artist must have an excellent understanding in editing and cinematography to ensure the story-board is as realistic as possible. Many things will need to be taken into consideration whilst producing the story-boards such as perspective, lenses and composition. Most importantly, story-boards need to be so clear that anybody will be able to understand them at a glance.

Storyboarding is essential in all films, but could often be seen as even more important in animation, as explained in the quote below from John Lasseter who is the Chief Creative Officer at Pixar:

http://pixar-animation.weebly.com/storyboard.html

Below is an example of a Storyboard from Pixar's 'Up':

http://characterdesign.blogspot.co.uk/2009/05/pixars-up-storyboards.html

Each separate image clearly shows what is happening in each beat of action, and even though this is for an animated film storyboards are still relevant to showing exactly what needs to happen throughout the film.

Script breakdown

The script breakdown is basically an analysis of the script from which lists are produced covering all of the production elements within the script. This is in order to schedule and budget the film. Alongside this, the director will analyse all of the action within the script and character breakdowns could also be created to then be used in casting calls.
Elements covered in the script breakdown will include all locations needed, crew needed, equipment needed for the making of the film, all props needed and what makeup and wardrobe is needed for the cast. From the character breakdown, casting will be done to then produce a list of all the cast.
A good method of breaking down your own script is to read through thoroughly, and to then go through and highlight anything corresponding to each category. Also make notes on anything needed that is not featured in the script.
Some help on script breakdowns can be found here.
Below is an example of how this colour coding can be done:

http://becomingproducer.blogspot.co.uk/2012/03/production-script-breakdown.html

Budget
The budget will usually be created in excel and will be a precise account of all costs needed for the film. This will include actor's pay, crew pay, cost of equipment hire, cost of costumes and props etc. Excel is commonly used for this because of it's SUM feature allowing exact costs to be worked out.
The budget can be used to plan exactly what money is needed for the production, and also clearly show where money can be saved or made.
Financing for a film can be received from many different sources; such as a sponsor, the use of product placement or a private investor.
Making films is a very expensive business. There are many different techniques that can be used to lower these costs. Filming at night can be expensive as it requires powerful lighting and increased rates of pay to the crew, and something as simple as eliminating unnecessary night scenes can save you lots of money. Using unknown actors as your cast will also save you an enormous amount of money as opposed to using big name stars.

Risk Assessment 
Risk assessments are vital to ensure health and safety is at a maximum throughout the production of any film. Creating films can be a dangerous business if all risks and dangers are not identified and solutions to avoid/ decrease these risks are not put in place. The carrying out of risk assessments will likely be necessary for you to get insurance for your film.
An example risk assessment form is featured below:

RISK ASSESSMENT FORM

Title of project

Name and Number

Address

Complete the following table rating

·         each risks severity on scale from Negligable (N), Low risk (L), Moderate risk (M), Severe (S), Very severe (V)

·         each risks likelihood on scale from Very unlikely (VU), Unlikely (U), Possible (P), Likely (L), Very likely (VL)

·         Determine the risk factor from the table overleaf.

Hazard		Present?	Severity	Likelihood	Risk Factor
1	Alcohol/drugs
2	Animals/insects
3	Audiences
4	Camera cable/grip equipment
5	Confined spaces
6	Derelict buildings/dangerous structures
7	Electricity/gas (other than normal supplies)
8	Fatigue/long hours
9	Fire/flammable materials
10	Hazardous substances
11	Heat/Cold/extreme weather
12	Laser/strobe effects
13	Machinery/industrial/ crane/hoist
14	Materials - glass, non-fire retardant set materials
15	Night operation
16	Noise – high sound levels
17	Non standard manual handling
18	Public/crowds
19	Radiation
20	Scaffold/Rostra
21	Smoking on set
22	Special effects/explosives
23	Special needs (elderly, disabled, inexperienced)
24	Specialised rescue/first aid
25	Stunts, dangerous activities
26	Tall scenery/suspended ceilings
27	Vehicles/speed
28	Water/proximity to water
29	Weapons
30	Working at heights
31	Working overseas
32	Other risks

Calculate the Risk Factor:

	Very Unlikely	Unlikely	Possible	Likely	Very Likely
Very severe	3	4	4	5	5
Severe	2	3	3	3	5
Moderate	2	2	3	3	3
Slight	1	2	2	3	3
Negligible	1	1	2	2	3

Decide the action to take:

5	Very severe	Take immediate action
4	Severe	High priority
3	Moderate Risk	Programme for action
2	Low Risk	Action may be required
1	Negligible	Probably acceptable

Then list each risk identified

Hazard no:			Risk Factor (1-5)
Description
Person(s) exposed (detail if cast/crew (C), outside company (O) or public (P) )
Action to take
Person/company responsible for action
To be completed at agreed later date -
Exposed person(s) informed? (y/n)		Agreed action taken? (y/n)			Risk removed? (y/n)

Hazard no:			Risk Factor (1-5)
Description
Person(s) exposed (detail if cast/crew (C), outside company (O) or public (P) )
Action to take
Person/company responsible for action
To be completed at agreed later date -
Exposed person(s) informed? (y/n)		Agreed action taken? (y/n)			Risk removed? (y/n)

Hazard no:			Risk Factor (1-5)
Description
Person(s) exposed (detail if cast/crew (C), outside company (O) or public (P) )
Action to take
Person/company responsible for action
To be completed at agreed later date -
Exposed person(s) informed? (y/n)		Agreed action taken? (y/n)			Risk removed? (y/n)

Completed by:  David Briggs                                         Position: Producer

Signature                                                                      Date:

Countersigned by:                                                         PRODUCER

Signature                                                                      Date:

http://mle.mbro.ac.uk/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_group=courses&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Fcontent%2Ffile%3Fcmd%3Dview%26content_id%3D_765379_1%26course_id%3D_260395_1%26framesetWrapped%3Dtrue

The form featured above shows how to calculate the Risk Factor of any and all identified hazards. Space is also given to write a description of the hazard, who will be in danger, what can be done to stop said hazard and who is responsible to take the preventative action. Also, underneath is a space to be filled in at a later date to state whether the person/people who are exposed to the risk were informed or not, another space to whether the above stated preventative action was taken or not and a further space to state whether the identified risk was removed. This is how risk assessments will be carried out for professional films as the safety of anybody working on a film is of the utmost importance.
Below is an example of an identified risk for the filming of a football match:

Hazard no:			Risk Factor (1-5)			3
Description	Someone could be walking backwards with a camera whilst filming and fall and injure themselves
Person(s) exposed (detail if cast/crew (C), outside company (O) or public (P) )	Camera crew
Action to take	Ensure anybody filming has a further crew member to watch and ensure the person filming does not have any obstacles in their path to fall over
Person/company responsible for action	Company in charge of filming
To be completed at agreed later date -
Exposed person(s) informed? (y/n)		Agreed action taken? (y/n)			Risk removed? (y/n)

I calculated the risk by deciding that the hazard was Possible and could be Severe, giving me a risk factor of 3; meaning a moderate risk was present and a program for action is required. I gave a full description of the risk, who would be at risk, what to do to remove this risk and who is responsible for the removal of the risk. I have not filled in the bottom section as this is not a real scenario so there is no way I would of known whether the risk was removed, however I feel the action taken would most likely remove the risk and I would of definitely informed the exposed person. Because of this, I have completed the risk assessment to a professional standard.

Clearances
Clearances are contracts for actors showing that they have given written permission for themselves to be used in the film. Releases are also needed for any locations used and other things involved in the film that permission is needed for. Lawyers will usually be involved with a large scale film to create these forms as they are legal documents, however examples and blank documents can be found online. However, release forms are not needed for anyone who appears for only a few moments in the background such as part of a crowd scene.
Below is an example of a simple actors contract:

ACTORS CONTRACT

Name of actor                                                   Name of production company

C/o Agent (if there is one)                                              Company address

Actor or Agent’s Address

Date _______________________

Dear Name of actor

This letter confirms agreement that you will take the part of ­­­________________ in the film ___________________ ( the “Film”) This is the working title and the final name of the film may change. As you know, this is a low budget production and we are keen to ensure that everyone understands the basis upon which the Film is being made. If there is anything about this letter that you do not understand or you wish us to clarify, please do not hesitate to contact us.

1)You agree to be available to work during the filming period (“the Shoot”)

 from _________ to  ____________    (or you can name the exact dates).  

2) You agree that the filming will take place in the following locations

_______________________________________________________________________.

3) You agree to give over any rights you may have in the finished film to name of production company or producer.  This will allow us to distribute the film in any and every way we can.

4) We will aim to ensure that working days are not longer than 10 hours.

5) We will do our best to ensure your health, safety and welfare during the Shoot.

6) We will have public liability insurance to cover you during the Shoot.

7) We will provide you with food and refreshments throughout the Shoot.  We will liase with you over your travel arrangements to and from the Shoot and either provide transport or pay travel expenses which we need to agree in advance.

8) We will be provide you with a VHS of the finished Film within 3 months of the completion of all post production.

signed by the actor                                                       signed on behalf of the company

date                                                                              date

http://mle.mbro.ac.uk/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_group=courses&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Fcontent%2Ffile%3Fcmd%3Dview%26content_id%3D_765372_1%26course_id%3D_260395_1%26framesetWrapped%3Dtrue

The form featured above, when filled out by the actor, is a legally binding contract. This means that the actor and the company both have to uphold all agreements made. When stating how many days the actor is needed for it is important to take into account if they will be needed for wardrobe fittings, rehearsals or retakes. When creating an actors contract for a feature film, other clauses may need to be taken into account such as the actor's health or the position of their credits in the film.
When using a child actor (under the age 16) in a film, the producer will need to apply for a special licence from the child's local authority and the parent of the child will need to provide documentation to the producer such as a letter from the child's school authorising the absence that will be taken during the filming.
Contracts are also needed for the use of any locations; these are known as clearances. These agreements can allow you not only the rights to shoot on the location, but also to use it for rehearsals and use stills of the location for publicity purposes.
Below is an example of a simple location release :

LOCATION RELEASE FORM

Dear Sirs

I agree that ________________________________________________may enter the Property to film and hereby give all consents necessary for the reproduction, transmission, broadcast and exploitation of the material in the programme without time limit throughout the universe by all means and media (whether now known or hereafter invented) without liability or acknowledgment to me.

Yours faithfully                                                                     Read and agreed by

------------------------------                                                  ----------------------------

For and on behalf of Production                                   Owner

 http://mle.mbro.ac.uk/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab_group=courses&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Fcontent%2Ffile%3Fcmd%3Dview%26content_id%3D_765377_1%26course_id%3D_260395_1%26framesetWrapped%3Dtrue

A location manager will often be hired and trusted with the role of finding locations and ensuring you are allowed to use them, they may also be given the responsibility of making sure the location is left exactly as it was found. A design team may also need to be allowed to make any alterations to the location, whether this is interior or exterior. This will all need to be stated on the contract if applicable.

Legal
When creating a film, there are a lot of legal issues that need to be taken care of. This can include contracts and clearances, ensuring that everything you use (music, sound effects etc) you are allowed to do so.
Copyright is the main thing that will stand in your way when wanting to use certain materials. Copyright is a legal right that provides the creator of original work exclusive rights as to the use and distribution of said work. This rights are only for a limited time, and the main idea of copyright is to ensure the creator is receiving full appreciation and compensation for their creative and intellectual effort. The types of work that are protected by copyright are: literary (song lyrics, manuals, manuscripts, leaflets, computer programs etc.), dramatic (plays, dances etc.),  musical (recordings and score), artistic (photography, sculptures, painting, logos etc.), typographical arrangement of published editions (magazines, periodicals etc.), sound recording (this may just be a recording of other copyright work e.g. musical or literary) and film (video footage, films, broadcasts, and television programmes). Below is the symbol used for copyright.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright

Another way to find things like music that you can legally use in your film is through Creative Commons. Working as a non-profit organisation, Creative Commons enables use and sharing of knowledge and creativity through the use of free legal tools.

http://mirrors.creativecommons.org/movingimages/webm/WannaWorkTogether_480p.webm

Creative commons provide copyright licences that are free and easy to use. They offer a simple way to provide permission to the public to allow them use and also allows them to share your work. Conditions apply to these permissions, all of which are your choice. You can easily change the terms of these licences from the usual "all rights reserved" to "some rights reserved". However, it is important to remember that these Creative Commons licenses are not an alternative option to copyright, they exist alongside copyright and allow you to modify the copyright terms to best suit you.
A further way to source materials for use in your film is through the Public Domain. Works found in the Public Domain are there for a variety of reasons, these can include the expiration or forfeit of their intellectual property rights or they may have became inapplicable. Examples found in the Public Domain can include the works of Beethoven and Shakespeare and many of the early silent films. Everything found in the Public Domain is freely available for use by anyone.

www.prattlibrary.org

Insurance is also needed when creating a film and can come in many different forms. It should often be sought out early on in your production.. The most basic insurance needed will be to cover the health and safety of all involved the production; the cast and crew. It is important to know the worth of all equipment hired so you can insure it accordingly; this insurance will usually cover any damage to or physical loss of equipment, however if equipment is stolen from an unattended vehicle this will usually not be covered by insurance. Also not often covered is damage caused to equipment by common wear and tear or mechanical or electrical breakdown of the equipment. 

The two most important forms of insurance you need as well as insuring the kit are Employers Liability and Public Liability. Employers Liability is a form of insurance that ensures there is a legal liability enforced ensuring that compensation is paid for death, disease or any bodily injury caused to employees either arising from or during the course of their employment and involvement in the production. Public Liability gives protection in the rare case of accidental bodily injury to any person or damage to property. If you do not have any form of insurance and something goes wrong on set you could find yourself in a severe financial debacle.